Patriarchal Societies: the Historical Evidence

Joelle Davis John Duran John Hicks Morgan Plasse Travis Rogers Eric Thomason PATRIARCHAL SOCIETIES: THE HISTORICAL EVIDENCE AND CONTEMPORARY DIRECTION â€Å"Feminism is the radical notion that women are human beings. † ? Cheris Kramarae INTRODUCTION Since the first records of complex civilizations, male dominance in human culture has molded itself into global societies and has forced women into lives of subordination and inequality. Historically, men have stood as the primary political figures and leaders, while women have been inclined to take on supportive and more household-oriented roles.This same structure of societies and governments has made its way into nearly every inhabited geographic area, and where has attached itself since the first immigration periods (? ). So from what root did this idealism mysteriously stem? Scientific research points that in times far preceding the birth of complex societies, Neanderthals wandered the Earth in a much different fashion. Eviden ce derived from fossils and uncovered leftovers seem (noun/verb disagreement: â€Å"Evidence †¦ seems†) to encourage the thought that people lived much more of an egalitarian lifestyle 30,000 years ago.Women, quite possibly, may have helped to hunt as well as nurse children, while men at times may have stayed behind to harvest crops. Though males were the primary hunters, the flexibility that may have been cast on gender roles is polar opposite to what would develop as humans became more advanced. There is a lot of argument and confusion on the topic of patriarchal origins, and what may have happened between this time of suspected weak gender roles and the time of male dominance. Whether or not the answer will ever be clear, its (usage: its or it’s) important to understand how long it has taken for our orld to considered (infinitive) women to be equal. In our nation itself, there was a time in which when an 18 year old boy with no political experience and little t o no real world knowledge could stand next to a wise, middle aged, female professional and cast a vote, while she could not. This did not come to an end until 1920, approximately 3,600 years after the creation of the first set of societal laws in Babylonian times. As we will discuss, patriarchal systems of family and societal life led from early Mesopotamia to all regions of the world over thousands of years.Though present today in almost every nation, the extent of patriarchal influences have diminished (noun/verb) over time and the freedom and rights of women have become more evident. THE ORIGINS OF PATRIARCHAL SOCIETIES The first evidence of patriarchal societies lies as far back in time as the emergence of man’s first complex societies around 3,000 BC. Cities in the West Asian land of Mesopotamia, such as Ur and Uruk of the Sumer region, existed as what are considered the oldest settlements, and were built with the first sophisticated infrastructures and governing domains .The first concepts of patriarchies developed in these cities, and became tightly woven into the structure of future cultures. One of the first sets of law to govern the people of Mesopotamia was written during the era of Babylonia, which began around 2000 BC. Famously known as Hammurabi’s code, the stone-scribed document listed policies and regulations for its people to abide by. These heavily included the rights of women, which were undeniably much more constricted than those of men. The women of Mesopotamia had certain rights, which included the right to buy and sell goods, own property, and work outside of the house.However, the power of men to exist above and over them made these rights appear to be measly and minuscule. Husbands were able to sell their wives into slavery and legally commit adultery and have multiple wives. If women were to cheat on their husbands, they could be ordered to death as their punishment. Politically, men were the primary (if not, only) figure s influencing all decisions made, including the development and direction of the city-states. Judging by the example given in Hammurabi’s Code (if a proper noun here, then why not in the few sentences preceding this one? , it is needless to say that that (? ) males controlled the cities of Mesopotamia, and thus, the world’s earlier settlements. The ideas and concepts of patriarchies would grow from this age and wrap around the foundations of nearly every society for millenniums to come. Please acknowledge all ideas you have borrowed from secondary sources and have paraphrased and/or summarized with parenthetical citations. PATRIARCHY IN GREECE Some of (? ) most complex societies in our early history came about from between 650 BC – 100 AD along the Mediterranean sea.At the start of this time, Greek society was blooming into one of the most unprecedented cultural beauties, rich with visual, art, drama, mythology, and dramatic literature. In 510 BC, Athens became the site of the first democratic government, paving the way for citizen-oriented governments to come. In this democracy, all men over the age of 18 were granted the right to vote on political issues, which is something that was extremely new in those times. The rights of the common male may have been leaning towards equality, but women still faced subordination to men.In fact, the lack of rights to women across Greek land were solidified (noun/verb) by law. This varied throughout the country, more extreme or less emphasized among different city-states. For instance, in Sparta women were highly respected and able to speak for themselves, yet the land was still run primarily by the male-run military. Athenian women, however, had few rights and were typically confined to their homes. Their husbands were in total control as heads of households, and lead the direction of family’s daily lives.Thus, it is clearly evident that democratic Greece was still heavily influenced by patriar chal philosophies. The word â€Å"patriarch† refers to the male leader of a family and comes from the Greek word â€Å"patriarches. †(The Free Resource) End punctuation follows the parenthetical citation. Ancient Greece was an agricultural society in its founding. Societies that are agricultural are typically patriarchal in the context that the male in the family, whether it is father, husband, or brother, made (shift in verb tense) the key cultural, religious, and financial decisions within the family and community sector (The Free Resource).Ancient Greece followed for the most part in that same context. The system of patriarchy was developed in Greece in roughly the 4th and 5th century B. C. E. Shortly following its establishment, women’s rights and privileges were on the rapid decline. Greek women were not allowed to participate in politics. â€Å"According to legend, the goddess Athena won by just one female vote, the right to name the city Athens. Because of this initiative by a woman, as a punishment, all future generations of women would not be allowed to participate in politics â€Å"(The Free Resource).These kinds of legends and religious beliefs further suppressed and in societal terms it appeared to be justified. Some of the information in this paragraph is redundant. Consider combining this paragraph with the one preceding it. Although woman for (? ) inferior in terms of politics, they were vital and powerful in relation to artisan families and influence behind her husband. â€Å"Socrates spent so much time teaching in the marketplace because of his wife Xantippe's sharp tongue when he was at home. † (Guisepi, Robert) If you are using MLA style, then delete the comma and first name.A woman with a strong personality behind a man that was firmly rooted in a political forum, such as the Senate, could have large political influence but very much in an indirect format. But in law and culture, women were held inferior. Even the activities of free women were daily put into question and were not respected highly in societal terms. â€Å"The raping of a free woman, though a crime, was a lesser offense than seducing her, since seduction meant winning her affections away from her duties. † (Guisepi, Robert) Even infant females were regarded in a substandard way.Families that were over burdened with children would often resort to infanticide and discard the female infants. The woman’s father usually arranged marriages. Divorce was legal for men but woman had to go to court and were frequently unsuccessful. Adultery was common with men but woman could be divorced or severely punished if caught (Guisepi, Robert). What is the controlling idea in this paragraph? The only Greek society that was vaguely different was Sparta. Education was also extended to girls. Both sexes exercised naked.Women however (comma error) could not compete by the Olympic rules, while Spartan men were very successful (Cartl edge, Paul). When their husbands were at war or out of the home, women assumed control and made the necessary choice that her husband would have made. Women could negotiate with their husbands to bring their lovers into the home so they could be monitored (Cartledge, Paul). The way Sparta is portrayed in movies, as being very equal, is rather false. Spartan society exhibited many of the same classic patriarchal beliefs as the rest of Greece did.Does this sentence contradict the topic sentence? PATRIARCHY IN CHINA Patriarchal structures of society have been prominent in Chinese culture since around 1000 BC. Texts dating back 200 BC refer to men being masters of the outside world with women being masters of the home. Immediate families existed (? ) not only focused on parents and offspring, but grandparents, living relatives, and even the spirits of descendants. The senior males of these families demanded respect from all subordinates, including their wives.Women were legally subordin ate to men and were usually frowned upon at birth due to the fact that they would one day just become an asset of another family after years of being raised. A common phrase from that time which stayed with China until the end of the imperial period was, â€Å"the three subordinations and the four virtues† being, â€Å"a woman was to be subordinate to her father in youth, her husband in maturity, and her son in old age. (Natalie Bennett)† Punctuate with commas to setoff appositives—for example, â€Å"A common phrase from that time, which stayed with China until the end of the imperial period, was †¦. Also, is â€Å"imperial period† a proper noun? While generally thought of as a more western term, patriarchy has also historically been a heavy influence in Asia, particularly within China (Should we move this to the start of this subtopic? Yes! Organization. ). Men in China have historically held political power, being ruled by an emperor until 1912. T he title of emperor was passed from father to son in each dynasty with the empress holding very limited power. On top of this the emperor and many other upper class men had multiple wives as a symbol of their wealth while women could not have more than on (? husband. The average women were generally considered failures if they grew up without finding a husband or work as a slave; most people in China considered a woman’s job to be a subservient wife (BBC). To make matters worse, during the Song dynasty, around 1000 AD, the custom of foot binding quickly spread among high class families, eventually spreading all across China. Foot binding entails wrapping a young girls (possessive) feet painfully tight which prevents further growth; leading to â€Å"beautiful feet and causing their movements more feminine and dainty† (Nancy Miles) but also causing lifelong disability.Up to 50% of women during the nineteenth century had bound feet; for upper class women it was upward of 95%. Even after it was banned in 1912 many families continued to do it in fear that they may hurt their daughter’s (plural and possessive) chances for good marriage (Louisa Lim). This practice of foot binding even further limited the power of women in Chinese society and in turn helped fuel the patriarchy during the empire. Punctuate with a semi-colon to link independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction; to connect independent clauses separated by a conjunctive adverb; and in a series with internal punctuation.With a transitional signal, you can combine these two paragraphs. There is the more contemporary issue of the country’s one-child policy, leading to many forced sex-selective abortions (awkward). Most parents in China value a male child over a female child, believing sons have more social and economic value so when forced to choose to keep a child they more often keep males. This had (? ) lead to a huge skew in the gender ratios; for every 100 females t here are 119 males (Graeme Russle).Post-imperial China has, thankfully, seen (don’t split the verb) large improvements for women’s rights. Women have made a strong push into the economic (? ) and job market, holding the highest percentages of women employed in Asia (BBC). Although the patriarchy in China has been constantly getting smaller in the 20th and 21st century effects of it are still everywhere and change comes slowly, with people fighting for every inch they can get. PATRIARCHY IN INDIA In other parts of Asia, societies dug the foundations of patriarchies far deeper than preceding civilizations.Between 1000 BC and 300 BC, the Vedic empire of East India flourished in rich culture and strong religious elements. However, the extremely strict and conservative laws of the land were particularly harsh on female citizens. The villages, which were administered by men, saw that women were kept from religious and social activities. Political councils were governed prima rily by the head of households which were always men, and if all males of the important families died, the family was thus excluded from political activity.Families were led by the oldest male, who also claimed ownership of all family possessions. Women were often wed through arranged marriages right before puberty (to promote virginity at marriage), and were unable to remarry even if their husband (plural) passed away. In rare situations, women would perform sati, a practice in which women would cremate themselves live on their husbands (possessive and plural) funeral pyre. According to the Vedic people, the manners in which the rights of women were regulated so severely were thought to be for their own good.The idea was that if they â€Å"performed [them] with grace and devotion, they might expect a better status in their next incarnation† (74, Judge and Langdon I don’t believe any style formats parenthetical citations in this way). In comparison to its existence in Mesopotamian societies, the concepts of patriarchal societies in India became more influential in daily life than ever witnessed before and would remain even into the modern day. One way to combine this paragraph with the one below is to revise the topic sentence. For example, Patriarchy in India is represented in the caste system and has its roots in the Hindu religion.Since then and still to this day, the representation of patriarchy in India is the caste system. The caste system is defined as, (delete the comma) â€Å"an elaborately stratified social hierarchy distinguishing India’s social structure from any other nation† (1). A person is born into their his/her caste, will shun those from another caste, and never move up in the system in their lifetime. As you go down the hierarchy of the caste system, a person’s â€Å"pureness† diminishes. Women suffered from the bias outlook that women were polluted simply because of the body functions unique to wom en.Avoid second person pronouns. This view of women automatically placed them below the men of their caste (1). Aside from the caste system, Patriarchy also has roots in the Hindu religion, which is the dominant religion in India. It is believed that aspects of the female principle must be neutralized by the male principle (3). If the female principle is not neutralized, it will result in a violent and destructive behavior. Also, women are believed to have a far greater and uncontrollable sexual appetite than men. It was feared that women would istract men from their religious duties, so men would have to control women in order to control their lust (3). This belief was viewed as justification for male dominance over women. Both the caste system and Hinduism laid the groundwork allowing Patriarchy to flourish in Indian culture. In modern Indian culture, women are gaining more independence from the traditional systems that allowed Patriarchy to function. The Constitution of India, wh ich came into effect on January 26th, 1950, assured its people â€Å"justice, equality, and liberty† (4).In section III, under Article 15, it explicitly lists that â€Å"The state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them† (4) Although, before modern laws were written to establish equality, women had a low status in Indian society. After getting married, the Bride’s (capitalization) family was expected to pay large amounts of money to the Groom’s family and was then expected to live with the Groom’s family. Basically, the Bride would have to buy into the family. PATRIARCHY IN THE MIDDLE EASTIn the present day Middle East, governing laws have primarily been focused around Islamic religion since its foundations. This legal code, known as Shari'Ah, is based on moral and spiritual ideals, and â€Å"prescribes the pathway to paradise† (Judge and Langdon, 274). The Shari'Ah wa s completed between 7-9 CE and is still implemented in the legal systems of some Middle Eastern countries today. Combine these two paragraphs. Some of the concepts included in the Shari'ah clearly state the gender roles of men and women in early Islamic society, usually putting women in a place of subordination that is justified as being for their own protection. Men are required to treat their women with honor and respect. The insistence that women be veiled in public and spend much of their lives sequestered in their homes [†¦ ] are designed in part to promote honor and respect for women† (Judge and Langdon, 274). Additionally, men were (shift in tense) allowed to practice polygamy, as long as he â€Å"treats them equally in terms of financial support, sexual intercourse, household duties, and respect† (Judge and Langon, 275). What resulted from this mentality and the strict constitutional view of the Shari’ah, in other words that it cannot be changed (? , was a modernizing society with old fashioned laws. As time passed, women’s rights in the middle east that were originally written for women’s protection began to gradually put women in a position of pure inequality. An issue of debate to this day concerns the status of women in the Middle East. There is an extensive notion that the region and its people are traditional, change is unhurried and is not welcome. In accounts and popular Western perceptions, the status of women is assumed to be universally low, which may be, in all probability, due to the centrality of Islam in the lives of the people and the rules of the earth.Many writings have focused on Middle Eastern women as victims of inflexible laws, oppressive regimes, and fundamentalist engagements. Other writings tend to move too far in an opposing trend, and in overcompensation for the negative portrayal of Middle Eastern women. They try to dispute that Islam elevates women, or that Middle Eastern women actuall y carry â€Å"vast control†, or â€Å"restrained influence†, at least in their households. It is methodologically incomplete to tender â€Å"Islam† as the illustrative variable in strength and change.The status of women in the Middle East cannot be understood by substitute to Quran explanation, as well as not be possible for those Middle Eastern women are all persecuted, or that they are simple submissive observers of the dealings around them. The longstanding constraints on women's mobility and freedom of action have been eroded by the process of development and growth. You’ll need to decide whether the Middle East is a proper noun or not, and be consistent. Please acknowledge your sources. This topic sentence suggests you are no longer discussing patriarchy in India.Patriarchal society is a social formation which has traditionally existed in varying forms throughout the world, women being dominated by the male society. In classic patriarchy, the senior man has say-so over everyone else in the family, including younger men, and women are focus to distinct forms of control and subordination. The goal of patriarchy roots in the household, which is also commonly linked with the reproduction of the peasantry in agrarian societies (Kandiyoti 1988). A fragment is a grammatically incomplete sentence, possessing either a subject or a predicate.Making a sentence grammatically complete means it must have a subject and predicate. The subordination of women in kinship-ordered or political societies is related to the reproduction of the family assembly or of the peasantry as well as to the sexual division of labor. There is a disposition to male dominance inherent in the relation between the peasant household, landlords, position, and in the imitation of ordered groups, wherein women are exchanged and men are the translators in what Gayle Rubin has called â€Å"the traffic in women† (Rubin 1975 use the same style throughout this paper).I n a patriarchal context, women are assimilated into concepts of property. Forcing an unwanted marriage or mother to the unwanted child forced by society and religion to become obedient towards all men not just their husbands. PATRIARCHY IN THE UNITED STATES Use the tab key to indent all paragraphs. Long before the birth of the United States, ideas of patriarchies were carried westward with the migrations of the Amerinds (? ). This is assumed by researchers because gender roles were present in the first indigenous inhabitants of the West, even as far as Central and South America.Men dominated the political systems of tribes and settlements, while women raised crops and nurtured children at home. This way of assigning designated activities for both men and women was not unlike the gender roles on the opposite side of the planet. Therefore, some studies suggest that when humans migrated to what is now the Americas around 8000-5000 BC, societies were already structured to have males as lead figures while women carried out supportive roles. The standard was set for the duration of the Native Americans’ rule over the North, Central, and South America, and continued until they were dominated by European settlers.A tree with deep roots stood strong and proved very difficult to uproot. It changed over the years since then in various ways and women would eventually gain more power in society, but nonetheless it still existed when the United States became a nation. See my comment above regarding acknowledging sources. European societies based themselves upon the practices of patriarchy, so it is no surprise the first immigrants from Europe took this societal system with them.When the settlers inhabited the newly established colonies, they brought their traditional attitudes concerning the roles women should possess and their status in society with them (Sage 1). â€Å"Puritans organized their family around the unquestioned principle of patriarchy (Vandergriff 1). † â€Å"Their religion taught that family roles were part of a continuous chain of hierarchical and delegated authority descending from God (1). † The parenthetical citation follows the quotation mark. The role of each family member was important to the success of the family.Although the wife was subordinate, she could participate in public life through her husband (Sage 1). If the husband became injured she had to assume his role. This even applied to casting his vote in an election if need be (1). â€Å"Without a strong and productive wife a family would struggle to survive (1). † The father was always in charge in early New England. He had the right to intervene in the lives of his children, control their behavior, and even select their spouse (Vandergriff 1). Marriage was referred to as a contract between two unequal beings.The husband occupied the support role in which it was his responsibility to provide for the family and the wife was expected to be a ser vant to the husband. The wife was subordinate in the hierarchy of society but before God both men and women were considered equal (Vandergriff 1). Before marriage single women could represent themselves in court, carry out business, and even own property. Once married, however, women could only engage in business with the consent of her husband their husbands. It was believed that after marriage the legal identity of the woman became part of her husband (1).If a woman engaged in business while she was married her personal property, profits, and real estate belonged to her husband. Even if he could not be trusted with it and was not responsible, she could do nothing about it (1). Be aware of redundancies and consider how you might revise and combine this paragraph with the one above. Women were considered to be weaker than men physically, emotionally, and mentally. They were often referred to as â€Å"weaker vessels†. Women lacked the ability to legally vote and could not hold public office in colonial society (Sage 1).Although women had limited rights, many were still able to carry out business and do tasks not generally associated with the traditional roles of women. Labor was limited in the colonies so many women held jobs as midwives, teachers, printers and even doctors (1). In this aspect, the colonial period exhibited a degree of egalitarianism (Vandergriff 1). â€Å"Although women in colonial America could by no means be considered to have been held â€Å"equal† to men, they were as a rule probably as well off as women anywhere in the world, and in general probably even better off (Sage 1). † Nothing in this paragraph supports the topic sentence.During the nineteenth and the twentieth century (plural), many aspects concerning the roles of women, their rights, and their impact on society changed dramatically. In the nineteenth century women began to get out of the house and go to work in great numbers, with The majority worked in the textile industry and garment shops They often worked working many hours and in terrible atmospheres (an example of sentence combining). It was not until around 1910 that states began to pass laws limiting working hours and making working conditions more tolerable (â€Å"Women’s History in America† 1).Many jobs began to require education in order to practice the profession. This tended to limit a woman’s ability to enter careers that were considered professional. This was fairly common in the medical field. The American Medical Association was started in 1846, but and women were not permitted to join this association or men’s medical colleges, so they attended female schools (1). From 1890 to 1980 the percentage of total female doctors who were women went (diction) from five percent to seventeen percent. Women improved their statuses in other professions such as law and engineering as well (1).The teaching profession was a huge field of employment for wome n. More than twice as many women were teachers of elementary and high school compared to men in 1980. However, two out of every three teachers of higher education were male. Even in the present day, most working women find employment in clerical, retail, and service jobs (1). Combine simple sentences. A woman’s education seemed to always be secondary to a man’s. Towards the end of the 19th century the number of women attending secondary schools increased greatly due to the rise in female colleges and women being permitted to enroll in colleges with men.One-fifth of college students were women in 1870; by 1900 the proportion of women to men in college had grown to one-third (â€Å"Women’s History in America† 1). â€Å"Women obtained 19 percent of all undergraduate college degrees around the beginning of the 20th century. By 1984 the figure had sharply increased to 49 percent. Women also increased their numbers in graduate study. By the mid-1980s women wer e earning 49 percent of all master's degrees and about 33 percent of all doctoral degrees. In 1985 about 53 percent of all college students were women (1). Numerous laws were passed in the 1900’s to benefit women and to increase equality between the sexes. In 1920, women gained the right to vote by the nineteenth amendment (proper noun) (Imbornoni 1). Women now possessed the ability to participate in elections and influence the decisions of society. Women became part of the government during this time as well. Several women served in the House of Representatives and the Senate, starting in 1917 (â€Å"Women’s History in America† 1). The Food and Drug Administration approved birth control pills in 1960 (Imbornoni 1).Women now possessed more control over pregnancy. They could now choose to put off having children, while still remaining sexually active. â€Å"The Equal Pay Act of 1963 required equal wages for men and women doing equal work (â€Å"Women’s H istory in America† 1). † â€Å"Despite the Equal Pay Act of 1963, women in 1970 were paid about 45 percent less than men for the same jobs; in 1988, about 32 percent less. Professional women did not get the important assignments and promotions given to their male colleagues (1). † Laws could not completely halt the discrimination of women.Men have always been regarded and treated better than women in the United States. This is partly due to the long standing patriarchal beliefs and practices of our country. â€Å"The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination against women by any company with 25 or more employees (1). † In 1967, executive order 11375 made discrimination based on gender illegal (Imbornoni 1). Women now could share the same opportunities for employment as white males. The Supreme Court upheld a decision stating sex-specific help wanted ads in newspapers were illegal in 1973 (1).By 1985, every state had adopted a law allowing couples t o divorce by mutual consent. California was the first state to ratify the law in 1969. (1). Women could now end marriages they no longer wished to be a part of. Roe vs. Wade (1973) gave women the right to a legal abortion and overturned previous anti-abortion laws (1). Women could now end a pregnancy on their own behalf without legal recourse. The twentieth century provided women with many rights, increased their equality in society, and moved the country farther from its traditional patriarchal beliefs.Without the great strides made in these few decades, women would still occupy the same inferior place in society as they did during the previous centuries. See my suggestion above regarding sentence combining. Patriarchy continues to be part of the United States in the present day. Almost everyone participates in patriarchy whether they wish to or not. The practice has been ingrained into so many aspects of our society; it has basically become a part of the individual. Our society co ntains traits of being dominated by males, male centered, and male identified. These males are frequently obsessed with power and control.Many males go along with patriarchy because it directly benefits them. Abolishing patriarchy would threaten their power and control (Smith 1). People in power, men in this case, want to keep it this way. Historically speaking, powerful positions tend to be regarded as a man’s job. Therefore, as a society we tend to expect our doctors, lawyers, government officials, CEOs, and spiritual leaders to be men as well (1). Society has in the past, and somewhat to this day, associated being a male as a quality for high level positions, and therefore has confused the position with the person in the position (1).Many make assumptions of men being more qualified than women without actually knowing the qualifications of the individual because of this practice. Maleness and masculinity are often used as a basis for comparison in society, and anything not male or masculine is considered less or abnormal. This is clearly evident according to Smith, â€Å"We see the evidence of this characteristic every day in fields like medicine and law where a male lawyer, judge or doctor is just called a lawyer, judge, or doctor, but a female holding the same position is a ‘woman lawyer', a ‘woman judge', a ‘woman doctor'.This is because the assumption is that someone in that position should be male. That is the ‘normal' way of things. When someone who is not male is in one of those positions, we feel the need to identify it as ‘other' (1). † Women still receive less pay than a man for the same job. In 2009, President Obama signed the Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act, which allows victims (mostly women) of pay discrimination to file a complaint within 180 days of their last paycheck. The law was named after a Goodyear employee who was paid fifteen to forty percent less than her male counterparts (Imborno ni 1).Our society is remarkably male centered. Men are associated with power so it is normal and expected of them to be in the political spotlight. Because of this association, it is hardly noticed that the news, in general, focuses on men and stories pertaining to them (Smith 1). Men are on the covers of magazines, in the news, and their stories are on television. Stories and ads are directly influenced by the gaze of men (1). Smith hits the nail on the head when he says, Block quotes of four lines or more by tabbing twice and deleting quotation marks—e. g. In women's magazines, we see ads that feature women who are nearly naked, advertising bras or the clothes they are almost wearing. This is not because women like to look at other women but because women are being taught that they have to look a certain way in order for men to like them. Even the articles in women's magazine are male centered as the focus on such topics as ‘ways to please him' and ‘how to know if your man is cheating'. The male gaze, and thus male centeredness, is something that we cannot get away from. (1) As time has pressed on, women now enjoy much more freedom and potential in society presently than ever before.Women now hold many high level jobs, run companies, and are eligible to pursue careers in any field. Patriarchy has diminished greatly over the years but is still evident. It will continue to exist in America if society continues to be male centered. Men will surely hold on to their privilege and power however they can. Patriarchy in society is essentially a power struggle between the sexes. Women gaining power equates to men losing their previous level of power in society. Perhaps one day our society will be completely egalitarian. A woman has never been elected president.Maybe society needs a woman in the highest achievable position in order to reduce the influence of patriarchy. No other event or position could influence the changing of tradition and upset t he power men hold in society as much as a woman being the commander and chief. CONCLUSION For thousands of years, we have lived in â€Å"a man’s world†. Since human civilizations emerged, men have been in charge, ruled the lands, and determined the paths of people to come. So many generations have lived by this belief in pure, conscious or subconscious patriarchal means, and now times are changing.Today, women are enjoying a higher level of freedom, and are stepping up to positions unheard of for women to hold a century ago. Many nations have female presidents, and women all over the world are universally striving for equality. However, change cannot occur overnight. In around a century, we have witnessed a miraculous progression of universal women’s rights coming into existence, a surge of females into a broad, professional workforce, and governmental influences being carried out by female politicians. The more aware women are of patriarchal influences in socie ty, the more can be done to advance universal equality.Equality is essential to rid the world of the belief that a woman cannot do a man’s job or is less qualified because of her gender. You’ve done an excellent job researching this topic. You have a good thesis and support. If you decide to revise this paper and resubmit as the final paper, then consider the following: paragraph combining; consistent use of MLA style throughout, including parenthetical citations and the Works Cited page; and proofread carefully, as there are serious errors in this paper—for example, noun/verb disagreements and fragments. Grade: B-

Bahamas is the most beautiful place in the world

Bahamas is an independent nation in the North Atlantic Ocean, south-east of Florida. It is a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. The Bahamas consists about 700 islands and more than 2,000 rocks and cays (islets) forming an archipelago 550 miles (890 km) long. The largest islands are Andros, Great Inagua, Great Abaco, and Grand Bahama. On New Providence Island is Nassau, the nation’s capital. Thesis Statement: This paper intent to: (1) justify why Bahamas is the most beautiful place in the world; (2) scrutinizes the climate and sceneries of this place and: (3) know about why tourists are attracted to visit this place.II. Discussion The Bahamas is considered as the most beautiful place in the world because it has a warm, tropical climate with average temperatures around 70Â ° to 75Â ° F. in winter and 80Â ° to 85Â ° F. in summer. Average annual rainfall varies from 50 inches (635 mm) in the northern islands to 25 inches (635 mm) in the south. Tourists are also att racted by the warm climate, beautiful beaches, water sports, and casinos which the nation’s main source of income. Grand Bahamas and New Providence islands draw the most visitors, although the other islands, called the Out Islands, are becoming increasingly popular.The country’s liberal tax laws make it a tax haven, and international banking, centered in Nassau, contributes substantially to the economy. In addition, there are paved roads on many of the islands but no railways that make the tourists feel that they are really far from the busy life in the city. Nassau and Freeport (on Grand Bahama Island) are the chief seaports and have international airports. The Out Islands are served mainly by scheduled and charter airlines. III. Conclusion In conclusion, Bahamas is the most beautiful place because of its magnificent beaches that are so clean and blue and resorts that are incomparable.The place is totally amazing. It has its indescribable sceneries that will be enjoye d by tourists that no matter how many trendier resorts have came out yet Bahamas continually maintains its competitive natural beauty. Bahamas also has its latest and trendier resort hotels that continuously growing. Basically, the place has nice beaches and attractive spots that everyone would love. It also provides water sports like scuba diving and snorkeling and historically known as a place of casino and have plenty of boutiques, shops and restaurants where tourists can visit.

3D Printing for the Built Environment-Free-Samples for Students

3D printing is the process of manufacturing an object in three dimension formations with material layer by layer. 3D printing is one of the additive layer fabrication processes, this technology uses a computer-based system to make a 3D model of the object and manufacture it by adding a layer at a time. This technology has enhanced and significantly upgraded into a great instrument for various fields. Merging various fields in single product formed 3D printer as it involves design, electronics, manufacturing, materials and business. 3D printing is known as additive manufacturing, as it is not like subtractive manufacturing and it adds material with lot of layers instead of removing material (Hager, Golonka and Putanowicz, 2016). This is beneficial for many fields such as researchers, manufacturers, designers, engineers and scientists. The 3D printing technology is revolutionising the procedure of manufacturing in various industries. It entirely modifies not only the manufacturing fiel d, but also entire life of people in the future as 3D printer makes feasible to complete model in a single process. 3D printing is an advancement of printing technologies which can manufacture or reproduce elegant structures in one piece. This technology offers direct manufacturing as through a printer, physical product can be generated directly by inputting a design from an idea. 3D printing is an innovative technology, it started in the 80’s and named as â€Å"rapid prototyping†. Today, 3D printers offer to manufacture a physical object from digital model as per the imagination. In order to use 3D printer, firstly preparation is mandatory before printing, like designing a 3D file of the object that has to be printed. To design 3D model or file there are many ways such as through CAD software, websites like Blender and Google SketchUp or it can be simply downloaded from online marketplace for pre made designed models (Kellens, et. al., 2017). When the 3D model is ready for printing then the printing process has to be done. For printing process, initially material has to be decided which would be required for the object. 3D printing provides vast variety of materials such as plastics, resins, sand, ceramics, metals, textiles, biomaterials, glass, food and also lunar dust (Peng, 2016). After deciding the materials for manufacturing and finishing of the object for the accurate result of design, the object has to be printed and if it has not been sanded, lacquered or painted to finish it as deliberated then usually it cannot be directly used or delivered. Printin g methods depend on material selected for the project. Printing techniques of each material are described; if plastic or alumide has to be used during manufacturing then fused deposition modelling technology (FDM) and SLS technology would be best suitable. FDM is the most frequently used printing technique because of the number of printers accessible in the market. In this technique the material is being melted and emitted with the help of a nozzle by each layer at a time to 3D print the object. Thickness of the layer is influenced by the quality of 3D print (Sculpteo, 2018). As compared to other 3D printing technologies, FDM is an affordable 3D printing process. SLS technology is a laser sintering 3D printing technique which includes fabrication of an item by melting layers of powder collectively to manufacture an object. If the materials are resin or wax during the additive manufacturing then there are four methods of 3D printing such as Stereo lithography (SLA), Digital light processing (DLP), Continuous liquid interface production (CLIP) and Multi jet printers. A tank is used of remediable photopolymer resin in SLA method. The build plate goes down and where UV laser creates cross section layer by layer then the liquid polymer is exposed to light. DLP method is similar as the SLA method, the difference is that in DLP method a safelight is used instead of UV laser to cure the photopolymer resin (Sculpteo, 2018). DLP method can be used for silver and brass 3D printing. CLIP method is used with a continuous sequence of UV images which are produced by a digital light projector, with the help of an oxygen permeable, UV transparent window under a liquid resin bath. Multi Jet printers are similar to SLA method, in this method UV light is used by poly jet and multi jet 3D printing techniques to link a phot opolymer. A printer jet pours tiny droplets of the photopolymer in the shape of the first layer and not scan laser to cure layers. When metal has to be used as material, then the methods would be DLP, Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) and Electron beam melting (EBM). DLP can be used for silver and brass 3D prints. Primarily a wax model is 3D printed then lost was casting technique is used as before the wax is melted the pattern has to be made around it to create the object. In DMLS method laser is used as primary source to sinter metal powder through laser cross section layer by layer of the object (Sculpteo, 2018). In EBM method laser is not used during 3D print, instead of laser and electron beam is used to 3D print the metal. This electron beam melts the metal powder layer by layer and has ability of full melting of the metal powder. When multicolour is required during the 3D printing, then the methods used are Binder jetting, Selective deposition lamination (SDL) and Triple jetting technology (Poly jet). Binder jetting is very popular and useful as it provides the facility of producing detailed 3D prints with colour. To apply a layer of powder on the build platform, the automated roller is used. Liquid binder and colour can also be applied to create a cross section of the product. SDL method is processed with the help of paper. In this process layers of adhesive coated paper are stuck together with the support of high temperature roller and then slash with a laser cutter to give the appropriate shape (Fosso, 2017). Triple jetting technology includes printing with the three materials and can also use three colours. 3D printing is experiencing a boom in recent years. This technology is also known as additive manufacturer and helps to design and manufacture products faster than ever before. Hence, it is becoming more potential even if we consider environmental issues. 3D printing is friendly for environment by supportable material. If we think about sustainability then the important part is material used for 3D printing (Chen, 2016). In the last years, there have been some cases where development of 3D printer materials from recycled plastic has been practiced. According to Joshua Pear the plastic fibre from milk jugs is energy efficient. 3D printing is turning waste into fashion as this technology is not only helpful in reducing waste. Whereas, it also offers variety of ways for reuse the waste for the fashion industry. For example, the sports brand Adidas has printed shoe, which has a 3D printed midsole manufactured from recycled fishing nets. 3D printing uses a lot of energy. 3D printers are utilizing lasers or heat 50 to 100 times more electricity than production from traditional techniques to manufacture the same object of the equal weight. However, it has important impact on environment as in many areas electricity has been generated from fossil fuel sources (Liu, et. al., 2016). Less material is being used in 3D printing technology as compared to traditional manufacturing methods. 3D printing methods offers to melt, fuse, bind and sinter the amount of plastic, metal and ceramic. Whereas, in subtractive manufacturing usually cutting has to be done of excess material so the additive manufacturing is very different from the subtractive manufacturing. As energy has not been used to produce extra material and also to remove it during subtractive method has to be done. Hence, it uses less energy as compared to other methods. 3D printing is beneficial for environment as it has the ability to print objects at any place like at store or at home and this reduces the need to transport the objects manufactured. Hence, helpful in lowering the emissions caused with the transportation. 3D printed products are usually up to 50 per cent lighter than the products manufactured through standard techniques (Pirjan and Petrosanu, 2013). Hence, during transportation of the 3D printed products, less energy would be required. Whereas, the transportation is very less of the overall environmental impacts because when a product has to be shipped from thousands of miles away in any other country. 3D printed objects are usually manufactured of thermoplastic, which is not the greenest material and cannot be frequently recycled. Thermoplastic can be recycled by several machines in the market like the material which is from unsuccessful prototypes for use in 3D printers (Mendoza, 2015). Whereas, the more this recycled plastic is being recycled it becomes more delicate which tend users to become reluctant to try it. The industry is trying and working on improving their recycling technologies. 3D printing is environmentally-friendly as it prevents to use traditional petroleum based materials and includes the use biodegradable and renewable plant based sources. The two major plastics used in additive manufacturing come from corn (Rogers, et. al., 2016). Poly lactic acid creates little waste as it is biodegradable, renewable and nontoxic. In this industry because of these reasons this choice is on priority. This industry asks their designers to make lighter weight products. More time would be consumed for making something big. So, they line up the incentive structures of the economies and this would be helpful in meeting environmental priorities. 3D printing offers to manufacture the light weight and strong complex shapes very fast. This technique helps in manufacturing cars and wind turbines and when these products are made with lighter weight parts then they can be helpful in saving energy. 3D printing also has positive impact socially than environmental (Silva Barros, 2017). As 3D printing can be used at any place for printing objects, then this technique should be used in developing countries that are not connected from global supply chains. Additive manufacturing can efficiently employ raw materials and their functionality. In a powder based process, nonconsolidated raw materials are used such as in powder bed fusion that can be reused that would help in diminishing material waste (Boon and Van, 2017). Optimisation in the design of the object has been enabled by free form fabrication of the additive manufacturing. The optimal design will help in reduction of materials, energy, fuel, or natural resources in the product manufacturing.   When huge amounts of energy are wasted like in moulding or casting, then the additive manufacturing can change the process and can also save resources utilised on the fabrication of tooling during production. 3D printing is revolutionizing every field. This technique is beneficial for environment in many ways such as, new body parts can be printed and working ovaries for mice can be created. Biologists made infertile mice fertile again by providing them 3D printed ovaries. Hence, it can be said that this technique is helpful in saving the world (Mohr and Khan, 2015). This technique is helpful in predicting natural disasters as 3D geospatial modelling is easy to create, carry and transfer environmental safety messages, 3D landscapes has been best way of communication for geoscientists by satellites designed for disaster response. With the help of 3D printing, scientists can provide an understanding to people regarding landscape and the risk (Insight, 2013). This help in taking prior and effective actions for safety. All over the globe these printed models are being used for the safety purpose, these address critical problems such as cliff erosion, volcanic eruption and wildfires. 3D printi ng technique offers to create a bamboo bike by using natural resources like hemp and resin (Baumann and Roller, 2017). This bike has been created by using sustainably sourced material, holding bamboo rods together by tubular joining pieces called lugs. Lugs have been created by bio fibre and a plant based resin glue. When bamboo bicycle is created by using 3D printing then it has been analysed that lugs have been created from carbon fibre filament, carbon fibre is recyclable.      3D printing can be done on demand, as parts can be manufactured when they are required by producing on demand. This simply means instead of manufacturing products in bulk, now with the help of 3D printing production can be done when the objects are needed. This is beneficial in saving storage (Surange and Gharat, 2016). The less manufacturing of stock allows putting the less capital, on demand production is also beneficial because risk of unsold stock or wastage stock is less and also prevent from selling the stock on discount (Garcia, Claver and Sebastian, 2017). 3D printing lower the carbon dioxide footprint, other manufacturing techniques causes the emission of carbon dioxide because most of the machines use fuel for their operation. The carbon dioxide causes air pollution and global warming. According to the research done by an aerospace and defence research organisation on the environmental impacts of additive printing, it was found that along with the fact that this technique s ave usage of energy and reduce the carbon dioxide emission during transportation, 3D printing also makes lighter aircraft components, almost 40% less carbon dioxide has been used during the production process of these kind of printed parts. It has been concluded from the above report that 3D printing technology has positive impact on the environment. 3D printing is also known as additive manufacturing and we have discussed the process of using 3D printing and also discussed about the materials used in this technique. There are different methods of 3D printing according to various materials. We have discussed the advantages and limitations of this technique. 3D printing is having a tremendous impact on industries such as aerospace and automotive to healthcare. This technique is turning waste into fashion, as it is utilizing waste in fashion industry. Huge amount of electricity and energy is being saved in this technique as compared to other techniques. 3D printing prevents the carbon dioxide emission. It is beneficial for environment as it prevents to use petroleum based materials and tends to use biodegradable and renewable sources. With the help of 3D printing technique the transportation has been reduced as it can be used anywhere and this technique offers to manufacture lighter weight products. This technique helps in knowing the disasters previously so that prior safety actions could be taken. 3D printing is an additive manufacturing which is beneficial for environment. Baumann, F.W. and Roller, D., 2017. Additive Manufacturing, Cloud-Based 3D Printing and Associated Services—Overview.  Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing,  1(2), p.15. Boon, W. and Van Wee, B., 2017. Influence of 3D printing on transport: a theory and experts judgment based conceptual model.  Transport Reviews, pp.1-20. Chen, Z., 2016. Research on the impact of 3D printing on the international supply chain.  Advances in Materials Science and Engineering,  2016. da Silva Barros, K., 2017.  Identification of the environmental impacts contributors related to the use of Additive Manufacturing technologies  (Doctoral dissertation, Università © Grenoble Alpes). Fosso Wamba, S., 2017. 3D Printing and Supply Chain Management: A Literature Review and Research Agenda. In  5th International Conference on Mechanical Engineering (Meche), September  (Vol. 30). Garcà ­a-Domà ­nguez, A., Claver, J. and Sebastià ¡n, M.A., 2017. Study for the selection of design software for 3D printing topological optimization.  Procedia Manufacturing,  13, pp.903-909. Hager, I., Golonka, A. and Putanowicz, R., 2016. 3D printing of buildings and building components as the future of sustainable construction?.  Procedia Engineering,  151, pp.292-299. Insights, M.M., 2013. Layer-by-Layer: Opportunities in 3D printing Technology trends, growth drivers and the emergence of innovative applications in 3D printing. Kellens, K., Baumers, M., Gutowski, T.G., Flanagan, W., Lifset, R. and Duflou, J.R., 2017. Environmental dimensions of additive manufacturing: Mapping application domains and their environmental implications.  Journal of Industrial Ecology,  21(S1). Liu, Z., Jiang, Q., Zhang, Y., Li, T. and Zhang, H.C., 2016, June. Sustainability of 3D Printing: A Critical Review and Recommendations. In  ASME 2016 11th International Manufacturing Science and Engineering Conference  (pp. V002T05A004-V002T05A004). American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Mendoza, A.J., 2015. Legal and Social Implications of the 3D Printing Revolution. Mohr, S. and Khan, O., 2015. 3D Printing and Supply chains of the Future.  Innovations and Strategies for Logistics and Supply Chains, pp.147-174. Peng, T., 2016. Analysis of energy utilization in 3d printing processes.  Procedia CIRP,  40, pp.62-67. Pà ®rjan, A. and Petrosanu, D.M., 2013. The impact of 3D printing technology on the society and economy.  Journal of Information Systems & Operations Management, p.1. Rogers, H., Baricz, N. and Pawar, K.S., 2016. 3D printing services: classification, supply chain implications and research agenda.  International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management,  46(10), pp.886-907. Sculpteo, 2018. 3D Printers and 3D Printing: Technologies, Processes and Techniques [Online]. Accessed from: https://www.sculpteo.com/en/3d-printing/3d-printing-technologies/ [2 nd April 2018]. Surange, V.G. and Gharat, P.V., 2016. 3D Printing Process Using Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM).  International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET),  3(03).

The development of E-Commerce Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The development of E-Commerce - Research Paper Example Pure or traditional brick and mortar e-tailing is also constituent of e-commerce. The industry has been growing very steadily over the last two decades but one of the issues that concerns modern day e-commerce is the issues related to the security of business transactions (Andam, 2003, pp.6-13). The history of e-commerce can be dated back to the days when computers, internets and modems were invented. Before 1991, the internet (then popularly known as the Arpanet) was not open for public or commercial uses. Hence, it can be said that the true birth of e-commerce was possible only after the year 1991 when the internet was opened for commercial purposes. Initially the term e-commerce referred only to commercial transactions that took place with the help of electronic media and then latest technology such as EDI and EFT. The process of clearing payments related to business transactions simplified drastically. The lead time also reduced significantly and users soon realized the hidden potential e-commerce and its application the corporate world. The e-commerce was readily accepted in the corporate sector because of cost efficiency, faster transactions, lower cost per transactions, and lower documentation requirements. With the advancement of internet, the popularity of online transactions in US grew very rapidly from the year 1991 (Humphrey, Mansell, & Pare, 1999, pp.31-32). The biggest threat in the virtual world of e-commerce was from the transfer of critical business related information or transactions over the public networks such as the internet. It almost took four years to develop the various security protocols including hypertext transfer protocol (http) that allows the users to get speedy and continuous access to internet (Panagariya, 1999, pp.10-11). In the year 2000, many Western European and American companies represented themselves in the World Wide Web

African American Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

African American - Assignment Example huge steps in the lives of African Americans but transitioning from slavery to freedom required some assistance hence creation of the Freedman’s Bureau. The Freedman’s Bureau sought to assist African Americans to access education, food, and health services. Moreover, the Freedman’s Bureau presided over conflicts between African Americans and whites and also negotiated labor terms between white and blacks. With freedom, there came tremendous positive results mainly for African Americans. For instance, African Americans were allowed to own property and commensurate pay for work. For the first time, African Americans were allowed to seek for jobs in white color industry. Moreover, African Americans were allowed to access educational facilities and advance their education. This later saw establishment on black schools and colleges, some which were taught by African American teachers. Ownership of property such as land and access to education was facilitated by the Freedman’s Bureau. Moreover, freedom brought sexual harassment of African American women to an end. Ending slavery also made it possible for the African Americans to move freely to all desired locations. It is also important to note that after abolition of slavery increased production significantly hence boosting the American economy. However, end of slavery also brought new challenges for the American community. For instance, some of the whites experienced land displacement as one of the civil war aftermath. The aging white community found change of lifestyle challenging hence reducing life expectancy significantly. There were also instances of violence due to efforts to oppose slavery end while in some instances African American would express hostility towards the white men. As Americans experience the rule by Barrack Obama, it is a sweet reckon for African Americans as they fathom the challenging path from slavery to modern

Ethics and Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethics and Leadership - Essay Example reporting relationship of the CECOs, as in to whom should they report, and that CECOs should be given the power to enforce the standards at all levels. Not only that but they should also â€Å"have direct, unfiltered access to the governing authority to solicit advice and receive information† (Kavanagh, 2007). The paper outlines the responsibilities that a CECO has in an organization s/he is assigned to, proposing that for a CECO to effectively do his/her job, it is essential that s/he be provided with adequate resources. The paper also remarks on the professional and personal skills, qualifications and characteristics that a CECO must possess to be successful at his/her job, also recommending that the CECO be made to continue his/her education and training. Ethics is basically a study of what is the right thing to do in any given situation and what is morally, not in a religious context, correct. It is to do something right. Leadership is also concerned with action, and effective leadership is where the leader guides his/her followers to the right path and, ultimately, towards success. In essence both ethics and leadership are intertwined in the sense that without ethics there is no effective leadership. There is a strong link between the two as it is often the leadership that comes from adhering to ethics that leads to success in any given situation in life, whether it is in a personal capacity or a professional

The Negatives involved in the Afordable Care Act Essay

The Negatives involved in the Afordable Care Act - Essay Example Still in the same front of Affordable Care Act, many Americans tend to lose their previous health insurance which also leads to increase their premiums for individual coverage (Health literacy implications of the affordable care act, 2010). In addition, to further adverse impacts generated by Obama health act is that business expansion became difficult due to employees working hours cut down. This is immensely contributed by employers are liable to provide health insurance to their employees this leading to reduce big business with permanent employees to small business with fewer permanent employees and others being part time employees (Health literacy implications of the affordable care act, 2010). According wall street journal the insurance plan under Obamacare has sternly limited residence of America, fewer options in regards to the preferred doctors and medical care. Obamacare tend to pay doctors a lot than any sort of coverage hence causing to multifarious tribulations with this scheme which is leading to rise in costs of the health care for every individual to afford (Health literacy implications of the affordable care act,

PATIENT TO NURSE RATIO IN HOSPITALS Research Paper

PATIENT TO NURSE RATIO IN HOSPITALS - Research Paper Example The first group of subjects examined consisted of 2585 patients that had utilized mechanical ventilation following admission for pneumonia treatment or for more than two days irrespective of diagnosis made at the time of admission. The research subjects, categorized on the basis of varying staffing levels were taken into account during the study. Results from the study showed that 393 patients developed pneumonia out of the 1658 subjects that were in the secondary group. This amounted to a percentage of 23.7. In study groups with PNRs of 1:1, 2:1, 2.5:1, and 3:1 units with patient to nurse ratios of 1 to 1, 2 to 1, 2.5 to 1, and 3 to 1, the rates of pneumonia development were 9.3 percent, 25.7 percent, 18.7 percent and 24.2 percent in that order. Overall, the study showed that after adjustment for contradictory variables, PNRs of more than 1:1 were not associated with elevated risk for pneumonia linked to ventilator usage. The conclusion, therefore, was that even though a 1:1 ratio i s associated with a reduced risk of ventilator-linked pneumonia, adjustment of the variables reduces the significance of the difference. The second article under scrutiny is titled â€Å"Patient-to-Nurse Ratios and Outcomes of Moderately Preterm Infants† and is written by Profit et al. (2010). The research article begins by denoting that, in many spheres of medicine, increased PNRs are linked to improved patient outcomes. The authors are keen to note that the impact of nurse-staffing on health outcomes of preterm babies has not been addressed in research. This clearly identifies the research gap and justifies the study. The objective of the study, therefore, was to examine the influence of PNRs on the outcome of healthcare afforded to fairly preterm babies. In this study increase in nurse staffing was linked to a decline in the preterm infants’ weight gain each day. However, nurse-staffing in relation to the number of infants, as measured by the

The Role of the Mentor In Organising, Managing And Leading Programmes Essay

The Role of the Mentor In Organising, Managing And Leading Programmes of Learning In Clinical Education - Essay Example In fact, one of the most familiar adages puts it, â€Å"Experience teaches us best.† This can be further elaborated from Kolb’s theory of experiential learning. Illustration 1: Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning (Quinn, 2000). In this theory, Kolb’s emphasised four generic adaptive abilities to reach effective learning and these involve concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation (Quinn, 2000). Furthermore, in clinical education, another important point in facilitating learning is about providing strategies for effective clinical teaching (Gaberson and Oermann, 2010). However, facilitation alone does not prove to be sufficient to ensure learning at the highest level. Supervision in learning in clinical practice is a must. Aside from facilitating the students in their learning in clinical education, mentors have the role to supervise them. This supervision is evident on the supervision cycle model o f Goldhammer and his colleagues in 1980. Regarding this supervision, it is an integral part of educator’s role (a) to initiate pre-observation stage which establishes rapport, reviews plans and discusses and rehearses changes; (b) the next stage is about educator’s actual observation of the session and taking into account noting issues for future discussion; (c) the third stage is about the analysis of the data that educator’s gathered from observation and consequently followed by strategy planning for feedbacks; (d) finally, both educator and student should initiate individual analyses and undergo plans for modification (Rose and Best, 2005). Supervision therefore is a hands-on activity that tries not only to facilitate learning, but more so... This essay stresses that managing the assessment process so that there is time for continuous feedback and identifying if the student is progressing is another important concern in student’s learning process. It is true that meting the challenges and difficulties presented to the mentors while supporting students in practice is another important area of concern. This is the bottom line of support system. This paper makes a conclusion that managing the situation if there are other concerns involved is another important move in student’s learning success. For example, enhancing the learning of students in the hospital area requires placement area analysis. This means mentors are not only there to facilitate, supervise, assess and give their support, but they should substantially consider the remarkable strengths and weaknesses of their students in their specific placement area. Mentors therefore are expected to conduct analysis and even specific forms of research. Students prior to becoming certified professionals in the clinical practice should undergo necessary learning, but they should not acquire this by themselves. They need mentors to teach, train and above all to support them prior to achieving their individual future objectives in life. Mentors therefore are expected to put their best foot forward as leaders which have substantial ability to facilitate, supervise, assess and support learning at the highest level as possible.

Human Resource Management and Employment Relations Essay

Human Resource Management and Employment Relations - Essay Example It has been referred to as a flexible staffing arrangement (Houseman, 2001), a market-mediated deal (Abraham, 1990), a flexible working practice (Brewster et al, 1997) or more generally as atypical employment (De Grip et al 1997; Crdova 1986). Based on the definitions, all of them imply that non-standard employment is a clear departure from the standard work arrangement. As it is, standard work arrangements are basically linked to full-time positions that are founded on an unspecified contract and are carried out at the employer's site under the employer's control and supervision (Mckenberger, 1985, p. 429; Bosch, 1986, p.165; Talos, 1999, pp. 417-418; Rogowski & Schmann, 1996). Although, international economic changes and modifications have toughened competition and intensified existing ambiguities within firms, the same have exerted greater pressure on these companies to push and aim for bigger profits and more flexible work arrangements. Generally, there have always been employment relations that did not fit in to the normative prototype of full-time work (Peck, 1996) and this is quite true even for temporary agency work that initially surfaced in the United States after the Second World War (Mitlacher, 2004, p. 9). As a classic example of a non-standard employment relation, temporary agency work entails the externalization of administrative control and responsibility (Pfeffer & Baron, 1988). Temporary work agencies hire workers and employ them out to a client company where they work at the client's premises and direction while the agency charges a fee for the service (Kalleberg, 2000, p. 346). This consequently creates a triangular relationship wherein an employee sets up different linkages with various establishments (Vosko, 1997). In the past decade, the use of temporary work agencies has been prominently evident in most European business firms and in some commercial organisations in Asian countries (Bergstrm & Storrie, 2003). Consequently, the number of temporary workers in the global labour market greatly increased which correspondingly created a new type of employment relationship within firms. As it is, engaging temporary workers through temporary work agencies has now become an ordinary procedure in all types of work organisations and such emerging trend has been mirrored in contemporary publications generated from the human resource and employment relations community (Beynon et al 2002; Mangan 2000; Carre et al. 2000; Barker & Christensen, 1998; Blanpain & Biagi, 1999; Felstead & Jewson, 1999). Though the open-ended employment contract still dominates, the role of temporary agency work can no longer be ignored. Obviously, a huge number of organisations are taking advantage of these workers and the nature of the tasks assigned to them is becoming more complex. However, even with this reality, only a small number of empirical investigations have been made on the human resource management of temporary employment and those that exist have not given so much attention to its peculiarities and dynamics. The temporary employment workforce is theoretically considered as a group consisting of "contingent workers" (Polivika 1986) and the benefits in employing such workers can be

Men Are Superior to Women Essay Example for Free

Men Are Superior to Women Essay Men are Superior to Women for the Appellation of ChineseThe cultures in china, Men are stereotyped as a muscular, tough, and strong figure. Until now, the positions of men are still the same. In the traditional Chinese point of view, they deem that men are better. I don’t deny this opinion because I am a man. As a result, my assumptions for the man culture in china in the following aspects, parental training, education and social expectations. First of all, in my country, parents or grandparents used to treat sons better than daughters. According to my culture, â€Å"men should take care of the outside (means earn money), and women should take care of the business inside (means domestic). † My assumption is in the poor area, when a lady is young; she is not got the best from her parent. They used physical punishments when she was misbehaved; she can not allowed to sleep on the bed or couch, instead, she had to sleep on the ground; while she can not allowed to receive education. Besides parental training, education is another area that I think being a man is better in china. My assumption is there are more choices for men in either high school or college most of the time. It is because in china, the educational system in high schools is divided to two major which is art and science. There are no such requirements that woman couldn’t take the science streams. As well as the education and parental training, there are conscious different in social expectations between males and females in china. It is always true that there are more social expectations of males than females. My assumption is A male without a job is seen as somebody who is simply not fulfilling his or her major social role, whereas a woman without a job is more acceptable. The responsibilities for men are taking care of their soul mate and their family. After leaving school, men just work. All the entire life is about work. However, there are no such things for woman. No one will blame a woman who does not have a job. Even so, once I born as a male, I deserve the challenge. Is it become a men are easier than women? There is no certain answer for this question. I strongly believe that men cultures make their life easier in the following aspects, parental training, education and social expectations. As a result, my assumptions for the men culture in china in the following aspects, parental training, education and social expectations. I am proud of being a man and I know my assumption is negative for the women. Indeed, I do not deny that most of the Asian’ nations limit the female’s opportunities. Thus, encouragement needs to be given to girls to help them get past the societies limits on girls. Today, woman power going up and a lot of people talk about men and woman should be more equal. My positive assumption for the future is Chinese culture will start change due to china opens the door to accept new thing form the west. It should be good for women and I hope women’s life will be better. Now they start trust that men and women are equal in importance, either one side has a heavier proportion.

English Literature Essay Example for Free

English Literature Essay Any debate of the English novel through the Romantic era essentially begins and ends in inconsistency, particularly when one also thinks curricular, instructive and canonical matters as they are mirrored in undergraduate and graduate course assistance at colleges and universities. First, the main remarkably canonised era of mid-era, Jane Austen, is usually observed more as a modern eighteenth-century era than as a definitively Romantic one. Next, possibly the most productive of the era, Sir Walter Scott rarely appears in any but the most comprehensive or sequentially constrained reviews of the English novel. Third, the occurrence of Mary Shelleys permanently well-liked Frankenstein in the educational prospectus often replicates on one hand the longing to take in women more obviously in the standard, and on the other the desire amid numerous teacher/scholars to leave their subjects in Romantic poetry with an available work of writing style fiction whose resemblances with that poetry are equally clear and convincing. Ultimately, Gothic novels, whose flourish of fame peaked through the Romantic era, are normally demoted to the fringe of the fiction sight, their existence recognized by the fictional-significant equal of the addition at family vacation meals of the poor family members who have to eat in the back room. In brief, the Romantic novel has regularly appeared to be a non-body devoid evenly of noticeably thriving practitioners and of any definable keen readership, either two hundred years ago or nowadays. When Frances Burney in 1778, published her first novel, Evelina, her foreword believes a male voice, and, though it admits that eras are usually contempt, inquires that this novel should be read in view of Rousseau, Johnson, Marivaux, Fielding, Richardson and Smollett, a pantheon which unites knowledge expressiveness pitiable powers humour and hilarity (and, certainly, personifies these virtues within an completely masculine authority) (Burney, 1970). Merely 23 years afterwards in 1801, Maria Edgeworths alike foreword to her early novel Belinda results a civilizing sea-change. Similar to Burney, Edgeworth is apprehensive concerning maintaining the eminence of an era, calling the scripture but a moral Tale. Not like Burney, though, Edgeworth writes unmistakably as a woman, and permits her name to show on the title page. Like Burney, she commands up in her own hold up a pantheon of precursors, but as Burney refuges at the back of affectionate power, Edgeworths pantheon is comprised of â€Å"Dr Moore ,Madame de Crousaz, Mrs Inchbald, Miss Burney, and Mrs Inchbald. An innovative representation of female authorship and certainly authority has appeared: and the author who most assisted this new representation was Burney herself. The publication of Evelina and its two descendants, Cecilia (1782) and Camilla (1796), established Burneys status as an epoch whose effort was not only enjoyable but also, significantly, ethically sound. La Belle Assemblà ©e in 1806 admires her as equally a pragmatist and a moralist, presenting an accurate picture of life in a realistic form. These identical assertions are constantly heard in talks of Burney. The 13 year old Elizabeth Benger in The Female Geniad admires Burney for a novel art which [e]ngages curiosity, and affects the heart, and for humour, wit and satire, but most significantly, Throughout the whole, morality presides, / Fair purity, the pen of Burney guides (Benger: 51). Robert Bissets anti-Jacobin Douglas: or, the Highlander dedicates a complete chapter to an appraisal of Ann Radcliffe, Charlotte Smith and Burney. Burney suggested initially just for not being a democrat (Bisset: III, 304), but is afterwards more generously admired for deep insight into human nature (Bisset: III, 311), and most momentous lessons of the best ethics and morals, tending to make the reader wiser, stronger and better (Bisset: III, 312). Bisset ends that where Radcliffe was mainly renowned by liveliness of fancy and Smith by softness of feeling, Burneys unique characters are depth, strength, and completeness of perceptive (Bisset: III, 315). Eighteenth-century England was a mans world. Englishmen did not pretend otherwise, would it have not happened as such. They accepted their authority as result of the natural order. Men governed the nation, made and dispensed its laws, and controlled its purse strings. They wholeheartedly embraced as their national symbol the figure of John Bull, a lusty, blunt and gruff, beef-eating yeoman whose very name suggests the stereotypical ideal of male power. More than a sheer picture to be employed for polemical purposes on the international scene, this dominating national self-image revealed the values and principles that motivated the British nation. According to the historian Linda Colley: There was a sensein which the British envisioned themselves as a basically masculine society-pretend, up-front, logical, and realistic to the degree of becoming philistine bogged down in an everlasting opposition with an basically effeminate France delicate, rationally deceitful, overwhelmed with high style, fine cooking and manners, and so fanatical towards sex that boudoir politics was made to guide it. (Colley, 1992, p. 252) Such attitudes assured the marginalisation of women in public life. Exclusion, perhaps, might be a more suitable phrase. In the arts, excluding literature, women were virtually nonexistent; few names, indeed, have made their way into the histories of painting, sculpture, music, or architecture for the period. Even in literature their contributions were and lasted to be for a long time either denigrated or ignored. Until near the closing of the century, women writers drew scornful comments from male contemporaries. The writing misses of Gothic legends at the ending of the century remained targets for scathing comments that rated their work on a par with that of printers devils. The very character of a feminine author was the object of suspicion. All but ostracised from the arts, women were no more present in the judiciary, politics, science, industry, or business. They simply had no vacancy in the common world of eighteenth-century men whose very retreats from their laboursclubs, taverns, and coffeehouses-were sanctuaries free of the presence of the feminine gender. If ones self-image helps determine success in life, eighteenth-century women were clearly doomed to failure. Wherever they turned in their society, they were found to be shown as weak and defenceless creatures, occupied mainly with the most frivolous activities, and dependent, like pets or children, upon men for support and guidance. Their silliness called for gentle chiding; their extravagance demanded sterner reproaches; and their emotional excesses, particularly suggestive of sexual feelings, called forth the severest rebukes. Periodicals and conduct books especially present a clear and no doubt dependable view of the image of women, an image created by men but generally shared by both genders in the society. As early as Joseph Addison and Richard Steele Spectator, periodical writers portray the feminine gender as attractive but essentially weak-minded, victims of foolishness, fashion, and vanity, the perfect targets for the new consumerism that Englishmen saw as a danger to the national character. Lord Chesterfield would keep women from business affairs since he regarded them as children of a larger growth. Jonathan Swift dismissed the sex as mindless, while Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, with obvious frustration, plainly enunciates the general assessment of her sisterhood: Folly is reckoned our proper sphere. So it must have been. Even those who were friendly to the gender and concerned with their welfare thought that feminine gender was an inferior species in need of male protection, defence even, from male predators since they lacked the qualities to thrive in a masculine world. John Duntons Athenian Mercury, particularly appreciative of the talents of feminine writers, nevertheless in more worldly matters saw women in conventional social and religious terms. In the Connoisseur George Colman and Bonnell Thornton, writers concerned with championing women authors, repeatedly take the gender to task for behaviour best described as immature and childish. Ridiculing womens use of cosmetics, the Connoisseur focuses on feminine vanity, the dangers of their emotionalism, and their petty concerns for gambling and party-going. The effect of this paternalistic image might be observed in the work of, among the strongest and most daring women writers of the period, Eliza Haywood, whose Female Spectator proves no less patronizing toward women than the works of the male writers already cited. Indeed, it is difficult to distinguish between Haywoods treatment of her gender and the suggestion given in a conduct book, The Ladies Calling that admonished a woman to live in a submissive selflessness consonant with her congenital incapacities. Although written seventy years after the conduct book, the interests in Haywoods courtesy periodical do not vary basically from those of her male predecessor. Her topics are love and marriage, parent-child relationships, feminine education, moral and social decorum; her views, despite her reputation as a scandalous writer, prove as conventional as those in The Ladies Calling, and, indeed, differ little from those of the host of male courtesy writers who preceded her. If someone like Haywood could be influenced by the pervasive male view of women in the prints, the evidence suggests that she was not alone even among the strongest in her gender. Elizabeth Brophy has demonstrated how the conduct books shaped womens own view of themselves whether in terms of their natural abilities, their emotional and intellectual weaknesses, or the dangers of their being overeducated. Looking at womens writing about themselves and their gender, it is not simple to distinguish how much of the portrait plays up to male expectations, how much in various subtle ways attempts to undermine the masculine view, or how much represents an acceptance of male definitions of womanhood (Todd, 1989, 9-10). Even the many fine women novelists of the century, rediscovered by feminist critics and publishers, indicate the enormous pressures on them to conform personally and professionally to male and indeed feminine expectations of women and their subject matter. Whatever may be traced to genuine gender differences, social conventions, and marketplace demands, these women were constantly made aware of their gender and limitations on it (Rogers, 1977, 64-65, 78). For example, whatever her considerable abilities as a translator, Elizabeth Carter could be comically but nonetheless seriously praised by Samuel Johnson on her equally fine ability to make a pudding. For all her intellectual talents, Carter, and many others like her had to know that in the male-dominant world they had a limited and very well-defined sphere. Given this paternalistic view of womens characterwhose very virtues appear designed to serve mens needsthe sphere for feminine activity would have to be very restricted in its boundaries. Women, after all, had inherent weaknesses, limited powers of reasoning, and emotions too easily stirred by the vapours from the womb. Men seriously regarded women as incompetent to perform the important tasks of society, too frivolous and whimsical to be trusted in serious endeavour: on the huge stage of the world, men were intended to be performers, while women were intended to remain silently and respectfully behind the curtain until called upon by men. From this point of view, women appear not simply inferior to men but creatures of a different order on natures chain of being. (Perry, 1992, 190) Yet the very things that men sensed kept women obviously out of the larger political and social prospect made them unusual in another sphere of life, one important for mens comfort, security, fortunes, and progeny. Those qualities of charitableness, compassion, submissiveness, and piety were icons of the household. Women in the domestic setting served a masculine society as totems of family values, of stability, of purity, of concern, and of loyalty. Affectionate marriages replacing the traditional contract alliances suggest mens recognition that they had to satisfy their emotional needs through matrimony. Certainly there was greater gratification in the romantic relationship than in the bleak ties of a loveless arrangement (Stone, 1977, pp. 4, 5, 7, 119; Hagstrum, 1980, pp. 1-2). Superficially, at least, it would feel like there was some type of triumph for womanhood in this new companionate marriage and its implications for greater authority at least in the household. It would seem not a bad trade-off for women who generally conceded their intellectual inferiority to men. It did, after all, give women sway in household matters more than they ever. It allowed them to act with enough guile to reignby insinuating ways so long as they maintained their customary mildness and cheerfulness.† For a lot of women the progress of the affectionate marriage, the regal control over the household, and the idealisation of womanhood that accompanied it must surely have been satisfying whatsoever the cost in having to deny the full intellect and sexuality of ones nature. For such women, words like William Alexanders in 1779 would have sounded comforting rather than annoying: As women are, in polished society, weak and incapable of self-defence, the laws of this country have supplied this defect, and formed a kind of barrier around them, by rendering their per  sons so sacred and inviolable, that even death is, in several cases, the consequence of taking improper advantage of that weakness. As the eighteenth century advanced, whatever their feelings, more and more the sphere of women became clearly the domestic workplace (LeGates, 1976, 21), and woman was idealised by man unless vanished all truly human qualities are vanished except those required to serve mens needs. Surely, however, there were women who would have recognised what Janet Todd labels as belittling idealisation in Alexanders words. Sheryl ODonnell describes such views as patriarchal notions of women as highly venerated inferior beings. Companionate marriage itself, Ruth Perry suggests, may be understandable as a more systematic psychological requisition of women to fulfil the emotional needs of men, a harsh judgment but not altogether untrue. Not all eighteenth-century women could have found pleasure in the notion that marriage was the be-all and end-all of their existence. As far back as Millamant in William Congreve Way of the World, the drawbacks of the marital state provided material for a womans lament; Charlotte Lennox Arabella in The Female Quixote most assuredly recognised the consequence of marriage on women, a good example of the anger that bubble below womens forced surface complacency. Domestic idealism could have had little appeal to the unmarried woman without prospects or to the intellectual female expected to hide her learning from an easily affronted male ego. Information that domestic responsibilities rated higher than intellectual interests could hardly have pleased the Bluestockings, however well they learned to play the game of self-effacement in a male society. Still, in the beginning and ending years in the time period from 1660 to 1800, female voices of protest were limited in a patriarchal society, and no great chorus joined such soloists as Mary Astell, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, and Mary Wollstonecraft. If the companionate marriage undoubtedly brought greater passion to the marital state itself, it did nothing to enlarge the sense and possibility of female sexuality in the general society. In fact, in some ways the marriage of affection demanded new or increased insistence on female chastity before and after the wedding. To be sure, the dual criterion in sexual matters willingly acknowledged that men bring sexual knowledge to the marriage bed. With the view of the womans superior morality, her idealisation as a symbol of maternal tenderness, and her embodiment of Christian virtues, however, came a demand for purity, both physical and mental. Idealisation merely brought the upper-and middle-class woman to a point where she was expected to deny her genuine emotionseither to suppress her passions or, at least, pretends that they did not exist. None of this, of course, applied to women of the lower orders. They were regarded as morally and socially inferior, not in control of their passions, and natural game for the male sex-hunter, particularly of the established classes. No better example of the double standard exists than the marital relationship of Samuel Johnsons friends, the Thrales. Henry Thrale, the brewer, carried on illicit relationships throughout his marriage to Hester Thrale. As a consequence of his behaviour, he suffered repeated venereal ailments, the treatment of which became, in part, his wifes responsibility even during a pregnancy. Still, no one in their society, and even Hester Thrales twentieth-century male biographer, found Henry Thrales conduct appalling. Indeed, like other males in their circle (Boswell, of course, is a good example); Henry Thrale, certainly, have his suffering as a sign of the nobility of his virility. His friends looked upon such manhood, if not the consequence, as admirable. Yet, when her husband died and Mrs. Thrale married Gabriel Piozzi, an Italian musician, she scandalised her circle of friendsincluding the novelist Fanny Burneynot simply because Piozzi was an Italian Catholic and a musician, but because in choosing him despite these drawbacks she had displayed a passion unbecoming to a woman of her times. She had placed her romantic feelings, her sexual desires, above the common sense expected of the now desexualised respectable woman. In every way society had made women citizens of another country. The double standard allowed men to cheat freely on their wives while demanding impeccable fidelity from them. For upper-class men to foist bastards on lower-class women, including their own household servants, brought neither shame nor embarrassment to them. If they chose to pay for the upkeep of these children, that was evidence of their generosity. If idealisation had made married women beings devoid of normal human emotions, the very laws of their country turned them into chattel, the property of their husbands. Let a woman fall from grace, and it required a miracle or at least a generous-hearted novelist to rescue her from utter destruction. Once having yielded to her passions, she was regarded as appropriate victim for all other males in her society. Even at the lower levels of society, the disparity of the sexes is evident, for example, in such a thing as the notorious practice of wife-selling in the period. Despite a recent attempt to apologise for it as a poor mans system of divorce and to show that women frequently found satisfaction in it (Thompson, 1991), the fact remains that it was the selling of wives and not husbands that characterised the procedure. Like the very system that excluded women from the public sphere, the terms of more personal relationships removed women from intimate relationships with men. Given the circumstances of women in eighteenth century society, it is not remarkable that they cut such poor figures in the novels of the period. One way or another, they were perceived by male writers as stereotypes: idealised heroines, fallen figures, comic and grotesque old maids, bluestockings, sexy servants, and the like. It would require the talents and sensitivity of the most unusual male writeror, indeed, femaleto get beyond the facade and thus create as well-rounded female characters as the believable heroes of eighteenth-century fiction. Very much a part of that male-dominant society of eighteenth-century England, Tobias Smollett could be likely considering women from that limited perspective. Indeed, it would be hard to identify a writer in the period more likely to display an example of the masculine sensibility. Even more than Henry Fielding, the contemporary novelist that he is most similar to, Smollett wrote novel that has, from his era to the present, appealed largely to male readers. Whether in his personal life, his attitude toward women in the real world, his generic literary interests, or the interrelationships among them, the forces shaping Smolletts novels led naturally to the small roles acted by caricatured women in his writing. Clearly, from whatever stance it has been written, critical opinion has consistently denied Smolletts ability to deal with women and their emotions. Feminist critics find his work insignificant for their purposes, contrast his blindness to female sensitivities with Samuel Richardsons awareness of womens feelings, and charge him with a misunderstanding and respect for the opposite sex. More traditional evaluations of Smolletts treatment, from early on and regardless of the gender of the writers, prove equally dismissive of his talent for dealing with women, their feelings, or their relationships with men. When Smolletts female characters are not being ignored, they are discussed for their eccentricities, their absence of reality, or their evidence of the authors paternalistic attitudes. Their very presence in Smolletts work and their treatment are attributed to the writers need to satisfy public taste rather than to any genuine personal interest in them. Whether as stereotypical idealised heroines or comic grotesques, Smolletts women are perceived only in relation to the roles they serve to satisfy his heroes needs. Certainly, neither Smollett’s life nor fiction displays the kind of sensitivity to womens emotions that would permit him to create heroines that go much beyond the idealisation that makes their sexual passions anything more than a convenience to gratify their husbands desires. If he achieves a sense of sympathy for the situation of fallen women in a character like Miss Williams in Roderick Random, her tale and its emotions are largely written to formulaic stereotypes. The distance between the fictional conventions in her story and the more revealing inset of Memoirs of a Lady of Quality in Peregrine Pickle reveals the contrast between masculine assumptions and genuine feminine sensitivities. Smollett feels most secure in his comic or grotesque female characters because they dependdespite his superior skillson conventional stereotypes that protect him from having to go too deeply into their emotions. After all, affectionate awareness toward women should barely be expected from a novelist capable of repeatedly harsh treatment of Jews (with the exception of Joshua in Ferdinand Count Fathom) and of blacks in both Roderick Random and Humphry Clinker. The wonder of it is that Smollettfor all his limitationsmanaged to generate so much diversity in his female characters of all types. That fact suggests the importance of talent and the effects of function in fiction. Smolletts limitations begin with his personal experience. Some sense of what can be expected in Smolletts female characters, especially his heroines, becomes evident in an inspection of his real relationships and associations with women. Although the much time has passed when simple biographical criticism could be freely used to explain works of literature that does not mean that an authors life is so distinct from his or her writing that biographical material cannot contribute to a better understanding of how and why the writers fiction takes the shape that it does. The authors interests, values, and experiences, after all, account for choice in subject matter, methods of presentation, and objects of focus. If, for example, a writer regards women in a particular way, that attitude is expected to influence his or her treatment of female characters. If a writer concentrates on a hero rather than a heroines activities and interests, then it is likely to be the hero who dominates the work while women play minor or subsidiary roles. For Smollett especially, since he depended too much on his own experiences and sought to bring to his fiction a genuine sense of the actual world as he perceived it, the facts of his biography as they bear upon his relationships to women seem appropriate. (Beasley, 1982, pp. 74ff. 82-83) Given Smolletts dependence on experience and his associations with women, it is not astonishing that he opts for the picaresque mode for his novels, that he emphasizes the adventures of a single male character, and that he utilizes his imagined women chiefly as adjuncts to the interests of his heroes. Smolletts biography, particularly his personal and emotional relationships with women, discloses a strongly male personality, even for an eighteenth-century man that forecasts the manner in which female characters appear in his novels-novels, after all, entitled Roderick Random and Peregrine Pickle rather than Pamela or Clarissa. Judged by what we know of Smolletts relationship with his spouse, he was a man who, if he had romantic passion, managed very well to control any expression of it. At a time when a new order of familial connections had become well established and affection between marital partners was the norm, Smolletts biography and work reflect no real tendency to an open expression of romantic feelings toward Nancy (Anne) Lassells, the West Indian heiress whom he married in about 1743. That very doubt about their wedding date suggests the manner in which Smollett chose to expose his personal feelings to the world. The same vagueness marks the place of their marriage, and Smolletts earliest biographersthose, after all, closest to the evidence and one a good friendcould provide no help on the matter and had to resort to creating imaginary details about it and about Anne herself. Like the idealised heroines of romance, Smolletts wife, as presented by him, seems little more than a fictional construction existing for the role she played in the life of the hero. Smolletts taciturnity about his most intimate relationship with a woman seems to mask what strongly appears to have been a good marriage. No evidence of other womenbefore or during their marriageexists anywhere in Smolletts biography, an absence that perhaps helps account for the lack of any concreteness in his portrayal of the emotional lives of most of his heroines. Certainly Smollett never indicates any dissatisfaction with their relationship. The one statement in a letter to Robert Barclay in 1744 that enigmatically expresses Smolletts uncertain state at the time may refer, as Lewis Knapp suggests, to Smolletts financial insecurity. Characteristically, Smollett holds back on the details. Smollett himself, years later in his Will, gives an apparent portrait of his considerations of Anne. Although Knapp says of the document, Through the legal terminology of [it] there burns the flame ofhis true affection for his wife, its formality speaks more to her generosity than to any strong emotion on his part. The novelist who could readily give vent to passions of anger and revenge in both life and fiction could not easily find words to describe the romantic emotions of love. Unlike Henry Mackenzie, his fellow Scots novelist, Smollett could not employ the vocabulary of a man of feeling. Even in his Will he can come up with no stronger language than my dear Wife Anne Smollett. When Dr. Giovanni Gentili, after Smolletts death, summarised the life of the Smolletts as one of perfect harmony, he appears to be seeing the relationship through Smolletts own stoical sensibility. That same stoicism did not characterize Anne. The few documents of hers we have reveal not only an intelligent and informed woman but also physically powerful touching association in their matrimony in spite of her husbands incapability forever to find suitable words to explain it. Certainly, for all that is recognized of Smolletts touching eruption of annoyance with others, it seems that he knew reasonably well not to vent his ill temper in opposition to his spouse, or, at any rate, she knew well as to how to deal with him in a matrimony that provides no proof that he ever mislaid her warmth. Like Smollett, she could explode when circumstances called for it, but unlike him she could find a tender phrase to express her feelings of love and did not falter in doing so. In a letter to Archibald Hamilton in 1773, she displays a fairly close familiarity with her husbands work and a good understanding of literature. Protective of her husbands reputation, she pushes, ultimately successfully, for a monument to his memory. She enquires that his volumes be transferred to her. She bemoans how much that Dear Man Suffered while he wrote Humphry Clinker during his terminal illness and how miss-used he was by his publisher. For her he was my dear Smollett, and, as their friend Robert Graham wrote in a prologue to a play for her benefit, she was capable of weeping for the loss of Smollet [sic] [who] once was mine! Only once does Smollett himself provide a picture of their blissful marriage. In an undated fragment of a letter, he writes: Many a time do I stop my task and betake me to a game of romps with Betty [Elizabeth, his daughter), while my wife looks on smiling and longing in her heart to join in the sport; then back to the cursed round of duty. The round of duty is Smolletts, not Annes, and she remains, like women of her time, an appendage to her husband. In Smolletts letters, poetry, and Travels Through France and Italy, the same picture emerges. Perhaps it is unfair to use his letters as evidence. Smollett’s routine was too hectic to apprehend himself with writing letters, and generally they are perfunctory and business-like, hardly the place to expect much emotional expression, let alone romantic effusions. If any were ever written to Anne herself, they no longer exist. References to her are few: regards to a family member and friends, a comment about selling part of her estate, the puzzling remark to Barclay perhaps about his trepidations about marriage, and a comment on her health. In a letter to Richard Smith, an American admirer, in 1763, however, Smollett summarizes his life and describes his marriage. To be sure, it would be remarkable if Smollett displayed his emotions in a letter to a stranger. Nevertheless, his comment illustrates again his characteristic coldness in his references to Anne: I married, very young, Jamaican, a young Lady famous and respected across the world, under the name of Miss Nancy Lassells; and by her I enjoy a relaxing though modest area in that Island. The coldness of Smolletts language and what he chooses to say are a remarkable foreshadowing of the descriptive terms in his Will. Even in a letter to his friend Alexander Reid after the Smolletts had lost their only child, Smollett, while speaking of his grief in a half a sentence, ignores altogether the impact on Anne and only later speaks of his wife as enjoy[ing] pretty good Health. Not even in poetry apparently concentrated on Anne does Smollett manage to convey romantic emotion. His novels show him to be passionateabout injustice, personal grievance, stupidity, and the like. In the poem Tears of Scotland on the outrageous treatment of the Scots after the Battle of Culloden, he does not hold back on his feelings, and in Ode to Leven-Water in Humphry Clinker he explode forward into over-romantic reminiscence. And yet neither A Declaration in Love: Ode to Blue-Eyd Ann nor his Pastoral Ballad (both published in his British Magazine in 1760) rises above the variety of part conservative in his era or proffers everything close to profound feeling. The ode, probably a relic of his courtship, seems rescued from a pile of old papers to serve as filler in his new magazine. The ballad, a stock part, has no value save for the detail that it is almost certainly Smolletts. Neither has the strength or passion that suggests genuine emotion. Nor was it likely that Smolletts poems would be open declarations of his deepest romantic feelings. When Lord George Lyttelton published his openly sentimental monody on the death of his wife, Smollett responded with a savage parody in Peregrine Pickle. Smollett was no Lyttelton, nor was he like the later Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who cast the inscribed poems into the grave of his wife, Elizabeth Siddall. If Roderick Randoms two poems to the heroine of his novel (225-27) or the poet Melopoyns, in which Roderick substitutes her name for the characters, were inspired by Smolletts feelings for Anne (and the novel was, after all, written only a few years after their marriage), it would be a sign of his sentiments, romantic feelings that he otherwise managed to keep well hidden. For Smollett, womeneven the woman to whom he was closestwere attendant upon men just as the heroines of his novels served to fill out mens stories and adventures. They were observed, when they were observed, from the outside. Consider the character that Anne has in Travels Through France and Italy. Although she was present throughout the journey, she seems barely to exist. According to Knapp, the references to Anne in the Travels signified that the author was affectionately dedicated to his Ann. In a paternalistic way that is factual, but it is even more to the note to point that the minute part that she participates in the work hands out the reasons of the performer, the male explorer who is the focal point of the books concentration. Smolletts strong masculine sensibility so evident in his marital relationship was bound to affect his treatment of female characters in his novels. That same sensibility apparently influenced his relationship with women in the society outside his home, and that, too, would help account for his fictional approach to members of the other sex, especially limiting his ability to go below the surface of his female characters to develop their emotions and to understand their sensibilities. No other major male writer in the period seems so restricted in his association with women, particularly in social situations. References Beasley, Jerry C. (1982) â€Å"Novels of the 1740s† Athens: University of Georgia Press, pp. 74ff. 82-83 Burney, Frances. (1970) â€Å"Evelina; or, a Young Ladys Entrance into the World†, ed. Edward A. Bloom. London: Oxford University Press: 7, 9. Colley, Linda (1992), Britons Forging the Nation 1707-1837, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, p. 252 Hagstrum, Jean H. (1980), Sex and Sensibility: Ideal and Erotic Love from Milton to Mozart, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1-2. LeGates, Marlene (Fall 1976) The Cult of Womanhood in Eighteenth-Century Thought, Eighteenth-Century Studies 10: 21 Perry, Ruth (Feb. 1992) Colonizing the Breast: Sexuality and Maternity in Eighteenth Century England, Eighteenth-Century Life 16, n.s. 1: 190. Rogers, Katharine M. (Fall 1977) Inhibitions in Eighteenth-Century Women Novelists: Elizabeth Inch bald and Charlotte Smith, Eighteenth-Century Studies 11: 64-65, 78. Stone, Lawrence (1977), The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800, New York: Harper and Row, pp. 4, 5, 7, 119 Thompson, E. P.   (1991), Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York: The New Press, Ch. 7. Todd, Janet The Sign of Angellica: Women; Writing, and Fiction, 1660-1800 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), pp. 9-10.